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PUBLISHED BY THE IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY ■ 1540-7993/03/$17.00 © 2003 IEEE ■ IEEE SECURITY & PRIVACY 17 A fundamental goal of information security is to design computer systems that prevent the unauthorized disclosure of confidential information. There are many ways to assure this information privacy. One of the oldest and most common techniques is physical isolation: keeping confidential data on computers that only authorized individuals can access. Most single-user personal computers, for example, contain information that is confidential to that user. Computer systems used by people with varying authorization levels typically employ authentication, access control lists, and a privileged operating system to maintain information privacy. Much of information security research over the past 30 years has centered on improving authentication techniques and developing methods to assure that computer systems properly implement these access control rules. Cryptography is another tool that can assure information privacy. Users can encrypt data as it is sent and decrypt it at the intended destination, using, for example, the secure sockets layer (SSL) encryption protocol. They can also encrypt information stored on a computer’s disk so that the information is accessible only to those with the appropriate decryption key. Cryptographic file systems1–3 ask for a password or key on startup, after which they automatically encrypt data as it’s written to a disk and decrypt the data as it’s read; if the disk is stolen, the data will be inaccessible to the thief. Yet despite the availability of cryptographic file systems, the general public rarely seems to use them. Absent a cryptographic file system, confidential information is readily accessible when owners improperly retire their disk drives. In August 2002, for example, the United States Veterans Administration Medical Center in Indianapolis retired 139 computers. Some of these systems were donated to schools, while others were sold on the open market, and at least three ended up in a thrift shop where a journalist purchased them. Unfortunately, the VA neglected to sanitize the computer’s hard drives—that is, it failed to remove the drives’ confidential information. Many of the computers were later found to contain sensitive medical information, including the names of veterans with AIDS and mental health problems. The new owners also found 44 credit card numbers that the Indianapolis facility used.4 The VA fiasco is just one of many celebrated cases in which an organization entrusted with confidential information neglected to properly sanitize hard disks before disposing of computers. Other cases include: